Associations vs. Causality
{"Image DocumentName": "Associations vs. Causality", "Image ImageDescription": "An association does not always mean exposure caused outcome. It could be due to random chance or bias. Talking Points. The existence of a statistical association does not necessarily mean that the exposure caused the outcome. Reasons for an association without a true underlying causal relationship include random chance, bias, and other factors. Making a decision about causality requires that a number of criteria be met, including (among others): Strength of the association (as measured by relative risk, for example) Consistency of the association over multiple studies. Temporal sequence (exposure precedes outcome) The point is that a weak association found in a single study should not be taken as concrete evidence of a cause-and-effect relationship. Reference: Grimes DA, Schulz KF. Bias and causal associations in observational research. Lancet. 2002;359: Grimes DA, Schulz KF. Lancet 2002.", "Image XResolution": "37", "Image YResolution": "37", "Image ResolutionUnit": "Pixels/Centimeter", "Image Software": "SlidePlayer", "Image YCbCrPositioning": "Centered"}